History

 



RETURN TO THE HOMEPAGE                                                                                                                                                                                                                   S/S INDEPENDENCE 1950
 


Built at a time when the ocean liner was the way to cross the Atlantic, Independence and her sister ship Constitution were synonymous with modern passenger ship designs and the post Second World War heyday of transatlantic travel. Ushering in the 1950s, they became a symbol of American passenger shipping dashing along the “Sunny Southern Route” between New York and Genoa, Italy. By the 1960s, like all liners, they were fighting for their survival due to the impact of air travel. But unlike so many of their peers, the Independence and her sister ship Constitution survived and went on to have a successful second career as cruise ships.

Design and Construction (1947 – 1951):

Soon after the Second World War, American Export Lines realised that the Second World War had dramatically changed the profile of Atlantic travel and it would take years for the Italian passenger fleet to be rebuilt. As a result they saw an opportunity for their company and in November 1947 they unveiled designs for two fast 26,000 gt passenger ships each capable of accommodating nearly 1000 passengers. The contract to build these new sister ships was awarded to Bethlehem Steel’s Quincy, Massachusetts shipyard on the 11th August 1948.

Construction began on the 29th March 1949 with the keel laying for Independence, followed four months later by the keel laying for her sister ship Constitution on the 12th July 1949. Revolutionary prefabrication techniques were used to speed up the construction process and as a result Independence was launched on the 3rd July 1950 by Mrs. John Slater, wife of the president of American Export Lines. Her sister followed 3 months later on the 16th September 1950. Together the sister ships were billed as the rebirth of the American merchant marine.

The design of the two ships was innovative and reflected the experiences of the Second World War. Propelling the ships was a conservative steam turbine system divided between two independent engine rooms separated by a 39ft watertight compartment. Designed to generate a maximum rating of 55,000 shaft horsepower, with the twin screws being driven at 150 revolutions per minute, these engines in fact developed in excess of 58,000 horsepower during the sea trials. The liners also had electrical and distillation plants which were the largest and most powerful ever installed on ships of their size and a maximum emergency fuel capacity of about 8000 tons for a cruising radius of 22,000 miles. Similarly, each of the sister ships was fitted with two double effect distilling plants able to convert more than 240,000 gallons of sea water to fresh water each day, more than twice each ship’s normal daily consumption. The sister ships were also the first large Atlantic passenger ships to be fully air conditioned.

Subcontractors from thirty five states contributed to the building of these ships, which cost a total of $50 million. The majority of the steel came from Pennsylvania, the wood from forests in the Northwest and Northeast, the boilers from Ohio, and the air conditioning and elevators from New Mexico.

The ship's architect, Henry Dreyfuss, produced a strikingly contemporary vessel with beautifully rounded and terraced decks, offset by tall twin funnels and a classic counter stern. Externally each ship had a 682.5ft long hull, featuring a slightly raked bow and an overhanging counter stern, a tradition on American Export Lines ships which experts credit with generating an extra half knot of speed for the vessels. Fore and aft the desk houses were rounded and the funnels tapered for the image of speed. Internally the ships featured spacious lounges and dining rooms, comfortable cabins, an enclosed promenade deck wrapping around the front end of the deck, and outdoor pools and lido areas.

Both ships were designed with provisional trooping in mind, and were constructed to the highest safety standards. They were also among the first ships to be built in prefabricated sections, which is the standard procedure today. Their interiors were quite modern and typically spartan in the post war "American fireproof" style, unlike their European contemporaries, which still utilized traditional materials and wood panelling. The décor combined modern designs with touches of “Americana” to create a relaxing atmosphere.

At the heart of the success of these two sister ships, was their flexible passenger accommodations. The majority of the first and cabin class accommodation was comfortable cabins that converted from sitting rooms by day into bedrooms by night through the revolutionary use of folding sofas that converted into full sized beds. Furthermore, with the use of multiple gates and moveable barriers along the companionways, it was possible for their 1003 berths to be assigned with first class ranging between 205 and 365, cabin class between 246 and 540 berths and tourist class between 258 and 415 berths. This convertibility of accommodation, which ensured that 745 berths featured the luxury fitting of first and cabin class, proved to be especially important in the conversion to cruise ships later in their careers.

In December 1950, Independence undertook her speed trials off the coast of Maine. There, for the first time, her turbines would be increased to full speed, generating a top speed of 26.105 knots. Two months later, on a preview cruise, with the aid of the warm Gulf Stream waters, Independence averaged 26.21 knots during a 24 hour endurance test and at times reached her maximum recorded speed of 26.8 knots, well in excess of the 25 knots specified in her contract and the 22.5 knots required to maintain her 8 day express schedule between New York, Genoa and Naples. She captured the title of the fastest American passenger ship, an honour she would hold for nearly a year and a half until the introduction of the superliner United States.

American Export Lines Era 1951 – 1974):

Independence made her maiden arrival in New York on the 22nd January 1950 and sailed on her maiden voyage on the 10th February 1951 from New York to the Mediterranean on a special 53 day gala cruise to ports including Casablanca, Gibraltar, Naples, Athens, Haifa, Genoa and Lisbon. Fares for this special trip ranged from $1,850 to $11,700 and the ship’s capacity was limited to just 450 people. Then in April 1951, Independence began her regular transatlantic schedule from New York to Gibraltar, Naples, Cannes and Genoa.

Independence and her sister ship Constitution sailed through the 1950s earning fame and fortune. At first they faced little competition due in large part to the fact that Italia were just commencing construction of Andrea Doria and Cristoforo Colombo, which were introduced in 1953 and 1954 respectively. Independence and Constitution had their fair share of the immigrant trade, and even had on board an Italian doctor and commissioner for the immigrants. But they were also frequented by celebrities and heads of states.

"INDY", as she was affectionately known, was somewhat overshadowed by her newer sister, CONSTITUTION, which was glamorized in film and television roles, most notably AN AFFAIR TO REMEMBER with Cary Grant and Deborah Kerr, and the famous "porthole" episode of I LOVE LUCY. "CONNIE" was also famous for transporting Grace Kelly's wedding party to Monaco and was featured on the cover of Life magazine. Nonetheless, INDEPENDENCE carried her share of dignitaries, including President and Mrs. Truman in the summer of 1958. Other celebrities carried by the ships included Alfred Hitchcock, Walt Disney, and King Saud of Saudi Arabia. Both ships were immensely popular on the route that was affectionately dubbed the "Sun Lane".

In 1953, the two sisters contributed a key part of the American Export Lines’ $16.9 million in passenger shipping revenues. On crossings that year, the ships averaged 692 passengers eastbound and 880 passengers westbound for a total average occupancy rate of over 78%. Four years later, in December 1957, as Independence embarked on her 100th voyage, she had carried a total of 157,453 passengers during her career.

The success of the sister ships prompted American Export in 1956 and 1957 to consider building a third ship to run with Independence and Constitution. However the construction costs of a comparable ship had risen 50% in the six years since the sisters’ introduction. So instead plans turned to ways of adding more passenger accommodation to Independence and Constitution. In July 1958 American Export awarded a $6.7 million contract to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Virginia to modernise the liner while maintaining the three class system. The designs called for lengthening of the ships’ forward superstructure to create 110 new first class berths and approximately 4000 gross tons of earning space. The reconstruction was carried out between January and March 1959 for Constitution and between February and April 1959 for Independence.

Entering the 1960s, the sister ships were challenged by the development of regularly scheduled transatlantic jet airliner service, and by the introduction of Italia’s Leonardo da Vinci and Italy’s long postponed post Second World War transatlantic superliners Michelangelo and Raffaello. Like most major American passenger shipping lines, American Export Lines received US Government subsidies designed to put their operating costs on a par with their lower cost foreign flag competitors. However, the subsidy contracts required the shipping companies to maintain year round service on their “assigned essential trade routes”, forbidding cruises to destinations such as the Caribbean. But despite these constraints, Independence and her sister ship Constitution began offering Mediterranean cruises. Each winter they would make an annual long cruise to the Mediterranean and, in 1954, during one of these cruises Independence made her only transits of the Suez Canal, steaming across the Indian Ocean to Bombay and returning to the Mediterranean via Ceylon and Egypt.

The popularity of the cruising concept also led to the introduction of autumn “Sunlane Cruises to Europe” in 1955 and by the 1957-58 season the programme was expanded to a total of 14 cruises. In summer 1958, American Export Lines also introduced “Sea-Air Cruises”, today these would be called Fly Cruises, with the sister ships providing one way transatlantic passage and Trans World Airlines (TWA) providing one way passage aboard its Skyliner planes on non-stop overnight service across the Atlantic. But that same autumn, in October 1958, British Overseas Airways (BOAC) flew the first regularly scheduled commercial transatlantic jet airliner and three weeks later Pan American World Airways inaugurated daily transatlantic jet services.

By 1960, twice as many passengers were crossing the Atlantic by plane versus ship. Suffering from this competition, the next threat came in 1961 when the US government temporarily stopped using the passenger ships to carry military personnel and their families across the Atlantic. American Export Lines’ passenger revenues dropped 11% during the first three months of 1961 fuelling a lobbying effort by the American shipping lines to revise the subsidy contracts to permit off-season cruises beyond their ships’ normal routes. The result was legislation permitting the American ships to offer up to four months of off-season cruises without losing their subsidies, beginning in 1962.

In 1962 the cargo fleet operators, Isbrandtsen Company of New York, gained control of American Export Line, merging the two fleets to become American Export Isbrandtsen Lines.

On the 18th January 1962, Independence inaugurated Caribbean cruises for the sister ships. Constitution followed in September 1962 and in total the sister ships’ 1962 schedule included two winter West Indies cruises, two short Bermuda cruises, a 51 day Mediterranean / Adriatic cruise and 25 Sunlane Mediterranean cruises, with just one scheduled liner voyage. But despite the shift to cruising their passenger loads were declining and the ships were losing money. On a Caribbean cruise in November 1966, Independence sailed with just 275 passengers, 25% of her capacity.

With yearly operating losses nearing $5 million, in November 1967 American Export Lines appointed the Fugazy Travel Bureau general sales agents for a new one class service planned for the two sisters. Fugazy handled passenger bookings on the RMS Queen Mary’s last sailing from Southampton to Long Beach, California. The sister ships’ 1968 sailing schedule included 24 Caribbean cruises and just 8 transatlantic crossings, down from a peak of 24 crossings in their heyday.

While the Constitution began cruising in January 1968, the Independence was withdrawn from service on the 4th December 1967. She arrived at the Maryland Shipbuilding and Drydock shipyard on the 19th February 1968 for reconstruction into a one class cruise ship. Lacking money for the work and uncertain if the US Government would grant a “construction differential subsidy” to offset the higher cost of using American shipyards against lower cost foreign yards, the company called for limited structural changes with a focus on cosmetic changes such as new carpets and fabrics.

The designers sought to make a visual statement to emphasise the changes taking place aboard Independence. Several mural designs were considered but in the end wanting to emphasise the warm weather cruise ship, the designers opted for a sun design. The mural, which was mapped onto Independence’s hull with surveyor’s instruments, stretched its red and orange rays more than 400ft across the hull, superstructure, lifeboats and on to the funnels. The eyes of the legendary movie star Jean Harlow were placed in the centre of the sun. Shocking to everyone, and called the “sun face” in the United States and the “evil eye” in Italy, the mural lasted just six months until November 1968 but was the first of numerous unusual paint schemes used on modern cruise ships.

In 1968, Independence also changed the way passengers dined. On the one class Caribbean cruises, passengers were offered “European Plan” service, in which the ship offered a pay-as-you-go system whereby passengers chose where and when they wanted to eat. The options included a traditional dining room, a Gourmet Restaurant and the Rib Room, a coffee shop, lido lounge, and a “Caribbean Super Club”. Prices ranged between $1.95 and $7.50 for lunch or dinner. While advertisements for Independence heralded the fact that a five day cruise could be had for as little as $63, passengers were only saving on average $8 per day for the “European Plan” service aboard Independence meaning for most people the cost was higher than Constitution’s “Full American Plan” which included meals.

Independence returned to service in April 1968 with more than 12,000 bookings for her 24 Caribbean cruises. Yet competition from the aeroplane and hotels, together with the higher costs of operating with unionised crews, was taking its toll on the ships. It was estimated that it cost American Export Lines $37 to produce and serve a hamburger to a passenger at 23:00 at night. Union rules required overtime pay for Saturdays and Sundays.

In September 1968 the Constitution ended her last scheduled sailing and was sent to the Jacksonville Shipyards in Florida and laid up. It was reported that she would undergone a similar overhaul to the Independence. But this never happened.

The Independence meanwhile continued to sail and plans were announced for her to make a total of 18 Caribbean cruises, mostly lasting 7 days, between January and May 1969. However in December 1968 a longshoreman’s strike effectively closed ports along the US East Coast. With the crew unwilling to cross the union picket lines, Independence’s sold out Christmas to New York’s holiday cruise was cancelled, and she was also sent to Jacksonville in Florida and laid up. Less than a week later American Export Lines announced that she was being withdrawn and that the two ships were put up for sale.

The rumours began to circulate over the fate of the two sister ships. Fugazy talked of restoring Independence’s cruise service, while Chandris, Lauro, Holland America and Home Lines all toured the two ships. Chandris offered $8 million for Constitution in January 1970 and a new shipping firm called Wall Street Cruises offered to buy the Independence. However the unions protested the sale of the sister ships to foreign flag operators and the Government officials who had to approve the ships’ sale due to the subsidy contract rejected the Chandris offer on the grounds of national defence. Wall Street Cruises continued trying for two years to complete the deal but in the end gave up and chartered other ships instead.

Orient Overseas Line Era 1974 – 1978):

In February 1974 with the Government legislation passed to permit Constitution’s sale to foreign owners, Atlantic Far East Lines (part of the C.Y. Tung Group) acquired the two sister ships.

Constitution was sold for $2.5 million and if permission was granted to allow Independence to be transferred to a foreign flag operation then they would pay $2.9 million for her as well. Otherwise they would pay $2.5 million to buy the Independence and use her as spare parts for the Constitution.

Constitution was sold and renamed Oceanic Constitution and registered in Panama she left Jacksonville under tow in April 1974 bound for the Far East. With her future uncertain and needing refurbishment and mechanical work, she was anchored in Hong Kong in August 1974.

Meanwhile the sale of the Independence to foreign owners was approved in June 1974 and soon after she went to the Maryland Shipbuilding and Drydock yard for repairs and structural changes mostly focussing on the addition of private bathrooms to the former tourist class staterooms. On the 24th April 1975, after being renamed Oceanic Independence and registered in Panama, she set sail for Durban on her first cruise for Orient Overseas Line. These cruises were shortlived and in September 1975, having sailed on just 6 cruises, Oceanic Independence was chartered to run refugee trips from Angola to Lisbon. After four refugee trips she sailed to Hong Kong where she joined the Oceanic Constitution and was laid up in 1976.

American Hawaii Cruises Era (1978 – 2001):

In 1978 American Hawaii Cruises was set up by the members of the Tung family and the Oceanic Independence was transferred to the ownership of this new company. She would be operated as a cruise ship in Hawaii, a potentially lucrative but closed market. Known as “inter-coastal” service, cruises either between California and Hawaii or around the Hawaiian Islands would, by US maritime law, require a ship operating under the American flag, registered and built in America.

With legislation pending to restore Oceanic Independence to the American register, the ship was moved from Hong Kong, arriving at the China Shipbuilding shipyard in Taiwan on the 23rd July 1979. There her main boilers were retubed, turbines repaired, lifeboats repaired, hull sandblasted and painted and a new bow thrusters and sewerage systems were installed while the work of converting her interiors began. In March 1980 the Oceanic Independence sailed under her own power from China to the Kawaski Shipyard in Kobe, Japan for completion of the work.

Oceanic Independence completed her sea trials on the 21st May 1980 and two weeks later departed Japan for Honolulu, Hawaii. Her 21st June 1980 maiden voyage restored American flag passenger services, and she offered seven-day cruises departing each Saturday from Honolulu on the island of Oahu and calling at Nawiliwili on Kauai, Kahului on Maui, and Kona and Hilo both on the Island of Hawaii.

On the 24th September 1981, Oceanic Independence sustained minor damage off the coast of Nawiliwili, however passengers were off the ship and flown home. In October she headed for San Francisco for repairs, after which she returned to service. In 1982, American Hawaii Cruises Inc. became part of the American Global Line, Inc, and to the joy of Americans, she was renamed SS Independence once again. 

Meanwhile the Oceanic Constitution was towed from Hong Kong and arrived in Taiwan on the 15th February 1981. She joined her sister in Hawaii and sailed on her maiden voyage on the 6th June 1982. The two sister ships once again were reunited and in service.

Over the next decade the sister ships sailed around the Hawaiian Islands. In 1983 American Hawaii Cruises embarked its 100,000 passenger and in January 1985 Constitution on her 139th Hawaii voyage surpassed her own 100,000 passenger mark. In 1987 the ships were sold by the Tung family to an investment group, but in 1993 American Hawaii Cruises went bankrupt and was sold to the Delta Queen Steamboat Company. Yet the sister ships sailed on with the promise of major reconstruction by their new owners.

In July 1994 Independence left Hawaii to begin an extensive overhaul at the Newport News Shipbuilding yard in Norfolk, Virginia, where she had been rebuilt in 1959. At a projected cost of more than $30 million, the 1994 overhaul called for extensive machinery overhauls and modification of the passenger spaces. It was determined that Independence needed replacement of steel in her outboard tanks delaying her return to service until November 1994.

In March 1995 Constitution was taken out of service for a similar overhaul and headed to the Cascade General Shipyard in Portland, Oregon for survey. However due to the financially weak position of the owners it was instead decided to lay up the Constitution. . She was again supplying the Independence with spare parts by 1996, while her owners lobbied the US Government to permit them to buy and build new ships for Hawaii and the American flag. As the legislation passed, the fate of the Constitution was sealed. On the 5th November 1997 the Constitution left Oregon under tow for the Far East destined either for a scrap yard or further service. However on the 17th November 1997 about 700 miles north of Honolulu, Hawaii she sank. As a result only the Independence remained as the last survivor of the two sister ships and for a while continued to cruise in the Hawaiian Islands. In August 1999, INDEPENDENCE began her 1000th Hawaiian cruise with American Hawaii Cruises.

However in October 2001 her owners declared bankruptcy. On the 20th October 2001 the Independence completed her last cruise in Hawaii.

US Maritime Administration Era (2001 – 2003):

Ten days later on the 30th October 2001 she set sail without passengers from Honolulu for San Francisco, California where she arrived on the 8th November 2001. The fireboat Phoenix greeted and accompanied Independence from the Golden Gate Bridge to the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. The SS Independence was now the property of the US Maritime Administration, docked was at the former Alameda Naval Station. On the 25th January 2002: she was moved to San Francisco’s pier 50.

On the 5th March 2002, SS Independence departed assisted by two tugs heading for Suisun Bay, where the US reserve fleet is located. However, she was returned to her San Francisco berth due to her mast was damaged whilst going under the Carquinez Bridge. The top of the mast snapped off just above the radar. Finally on the 12th April, the Independence was finally laid up in Suisuin Bay, California together with other US mothballed vessels of the reserve fleet. Soon thereafter the US Maritime Administration put her up for auction.

Norwegian Cruise Line Era and the Final Years (2003 – Present):

Soon Norwegian Cruise Line with US Government permission announced plans to start NCL America, a Hawaii based cruise line. Then in a surprise move in April 2003 NCL purchased the Independence and ‘borrowed’ the United States, the last two surviving US built ocean liners.

NCL stated that it would survey both ships and develop plans to potentially return them to service. After the announcement SS Independence was moved on 11th April 2003 to the former Mare Island Naval Base in Vallejo.

On the 26th July 2004, she was returned to San Francisco from Mare Island under tow, and was taken Pier 70. However today in 2006 the Independence remains laid up in San Francisco with an uncertain future. On the 23rd May 2006 it was noted that her name Independence had been painted out and replaced with Oceanic.

But if the recent treatment by Star Cruises (owners of NCL) of the Norway (former S.S. France) and the current controversy over her proposed scrapping in India is anything to go by this would give great concern about their intentions regarding Independence. We therefore consider that the Independence faces an uncertain future in the ownership of Star Cruises / NCL with scrapping a very real possibility. On the 20th August 2007 NCL / Star Cruises sold the Oceanic (former Independence) to an Indian investor, with the intention that she is then sold on to Indian shipbreakers for scrapping  at Alang. They haven't sold the ship direct to Indian shipbreakers so as to avoid the controversy caused by the S. S. Norway. At least this is what NCL / Star Cruises hope. So sadly it seems that the Independence is destined for scrapping at the beaches of Alang in India.

A sad end to a fine classic American ocean liner. NCL / Star Cruises have done it again!

 



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